A few recent studies have attempted to examine learning style variables and the media and methods used in distance education. Davie (1987) conducted a study of the interaction of learning styles (as measured by the Kolb instrument) and computer-mediated communication, and noted the need to conduct similar studies using larger samples and the importance of examining the relationship of learning style to student achievement. Gunawardena and Boverie (1992) conducted a study that examined the interaction of learning styles and media, method of instruction, and group functioning in distance learning classes that used audiographics conferencing as the predominant delivery medium. The learning style instrument used for this study was the Kolb LSI (1985). The major finding of this study was that learning styles do not impact how students interact with media and methods of instruction, their instructor or other learners. But, learning styles do affect satisfaction with activities involving other learners. Accommodators appear the most satisfied and Divergers the least satisfied with class discussions and group activities. Class type, whether students were on-campus or off-campus, rather than learning styles, impacted student satisfaction with media, methods, learner-instructor interaction, learner-learner interaction, group satisfaction, goal setting, and group climate. The results of this study cannot be generalized because of the small sample in the distance class. The authors suggest that further research involving larger samples is necessary to validate these results.
Research and Technology
Garrison (1990) begins the discussion of technology with his statement: "Distance education is inexorably linked to the technology of delivery. It can be seen as a set of instructional methods based largely on mediated communication capable of extending the influence of the educator beyond the formal institutional setting for the purpose of benefiting the learner through appropriate guidance and support. Without technology, a future for distance education does not exist" (p.45).
Most distance education programs today require the use of technology, and many authors (Baker, 1989; Clark, 1989; Stubbs & Burnham, 1990) are calling for revised evaluation techniques. In 1983, Clark startled the educational community with his statement that there is nothing intrinsic to technology that makes the slightest difference to student achievement. Hoko (1986) agreed with Clark in his hypothesis that there is no distinct advantage to one medium over another. Six years later, however, Clark (1989) called for an evaluation plan to determine both the basic needs of students and instructors and the technological components that mesh with those needs. Baker (1989) went a step further by saying that the evaluation process must be on-going. As each new technology emerges, evaluation of that technology should be done prior to and throughout its implementation.
Stubbs and Burnham (1990) take a slightly different view . They argue that most media evaluation models like the Reiser and Gagne model (Reiser & Gagne, 1983) do not deal with critical dimensions of distance education . In distance education, media provide primary rather than secondary materials for learning. Winn (1990) suggests that the technology chosen for instruction may not affect the eventual achievement outcome but "it greatly affects the efficiency with which instruction can be delivered" (p. 53). Distance education developers, worldwide, face the challenge of selecting the most efficient medium for delivery of instruction. Wagner (1990) believes that as technologies become more complex, i.e. interactive television, computer-based instruction and teleconferencing, the need to be more accountable and effective when selecting and utilizing instructional delivery systems becomes increasingly more important.
Early distance education programs relied primarily on print materials for instruction. This format is still the medium of choice in countries like Spain and Latin America where the cost of broadcast television is considered prohibitive (Garrido, 1991). Numerous texts and didactic guides are published yearly by the National University for Distance Education (NUDE) located in Spain. In addition to the print material, Spain and Latin America now supplement the printed material with a series of daily radio broadcasts from Radio Nacional de Espana. Spain and Latin America are not alone in their widespread use of print material. Garrido's article also includes Venezuela which only recently instituted, on a limited basis, both television and audiocassette delivery systems to supplement text- based instruction. Costa Rica has a similar program in operation (Garrison, 1990). While many countries must rely on print to disseminate instruction, Turkey and other developing countries with large communication infrastructures already in place use broadcast television (McIsaac, 1990). As distance education increases world wide, the need for continued modern delivery systems will continue (Winn, 1990).
Much of the literature originating in the United States, though not in other countries, discusses the advancement of technology to facilitate the delivery of distance education. Computer assisted learning (CAL) and computer conferencing lead the list for the number of articles. One reason may be that CAL and computer conferencing have allowed a shift from individualized, self-directed learning to collaborative learning (Lauzon & Moore, 1989). Additionally, Lauzon & Moore report that CAL meets the diverse needs and characteristics of adult learners by providing the opportunity for the learner to control and pace the instruction. Qualitative research by Cheng, Lehman & Armstrong (1991) supports the effectiveness of CAL and reports CAL to be "an effective teletraining device for academic institutions" (p. 63). Abrioux (1991), however, sees CAL as a somewhat questionable technological application. His research on language acquisition foreshadowed a need for student-to-student and student-to-instructor interaction. Abrioux also questions the cost effectiveness of CAL in terms of student achievement. While CAL was once viewed as one student working with material presented by one computer, advances in technology have allowed linkage of many computers and many students. This linkage is often entitled computer conferencing.
In their discussion of computer conferencing Davie and Wells (1991) support the need for interaction. They describe one of computer conferencing's most frequently cited characteristics as being its many-to-many capability. Computer conferencing is an ideal communication tool for bridging time and space among those who share similar interests. Lauzon & Moore (1989) note that computer conferencing is "effective in removing the barriers of time and space as constraints on communication" (p. 40). Their article goes on to describe "online communities that will be instrumental in the realization of a 'learning society' by transforming current distance education systems into online educational communities" (p. 40). Harasim (1990) observes that because of the democratic openness of the computer conference environment, all students have an equal opportunity to contribute. Although the majority of literature on computer conferencing is positive, Harasim continues her response to computer conferencing by pointing out several opposing features. She reports that class members have difficulty reading the computer screens and following a variety of online, visual cues. She also cautions that distance educators should review the amount of material students are required to read both on and off the computer screen. While these comments are precautionary and important to both students and instructors in distance education, an overall view of the literature indicates the positive benefits of CAL and computer conferencing appear to outweigh the disadvantages.
A second technology often cited in current literature is interactive television with two-way audio and two-way video capabilities. Although the majority of literature reviewed interactive projects within the United States, Collis (1991) reports from the DELTA Project (Developing European Learning Through Technological Advance) that nearly all of the countries involved expressed a need for modern interactive technology in Europe's future distance education projects. A further comment calls for teamwork and interaction. ". . . the learning system should be capable of supporting team work in the classroom or between learners at different locations, enabling work material to be exchanged between and displayed at other locations. (von Stachelsky, 1991 p.9). Canada has joined the United States and the countries involved with the DELTA Project in selecting interactive television technology because of its interactive modality for students and instructors (Helm, 1989). The term interaction in the literature does not exclusively refer to a two-way technologically mediated exchange. Cost factors, coupled with lack of access to the necessary components of interactive television, have led several institutions to give "interactive" a less mechanically-oriented definition. The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (Harasim, 1990), Nova University (Scigliano, Joslyn, & Levin, 1989) and the Dutch Open University (Meurs & Bouhuijs, 1989) all facilitate interaction by combining face-to-face meetings with computer assisted learning (Davie & Wells, 1991). Regardless of how interaction is defined, its importance cannot be underestimated, especially in the realm of distance education (Harasim, 1990).
Television, another often cited technology, is becoming a widely used medium due to the availability of satellite both in Europe and China. China's satellite television-based multimedia education system is the largest in the world (Gao, 1991). Gao continues by stating that with a population of 1.2 billion people, Chinese satellite television is the only technology capable of reaching so many people and meeting their educational needs. Germany's academic Society for Adult Further Education based in Stuttgart also uses satellite television to disseminate instruction throughout Germany (Hawkridge, 1991).
Technologies come in many packages, says Garrison (1989), but each must be scrutinized for its effect on the achievement of the learner, for its costs and for the environmental conditions necessary for its implementation. Administrators of distance education should not attend exclusively to the issues related to technology. Research is needed to identify how technology interacts with students and how it affects teaching and learning.
Areas of interest to researchers in distance education have been categorized in a variety of ways. The International Centre for Distance Learning (ICDL) at the British Open University, the largest single database of distance learning literature, has divided topics in distance education into: theory, student psychology & motivation, administration & support, curriculum development, teaching materials & resources, institutions & staff .
Research and Students
Although studies focusing on learners have received attention in the literature (18 percent), it is largely descriptive. Research based articles, however, can be found in works by Tovar (1989), Wilkinson & Sherman (1990), and Baynton (1992). Aslanian & Brickell's (1988) qualitative research offers a very extensive profile of the distance education student in America. Their findings are congruent with international programs although the international research is generally empirical. Nearly one-fourth of the literature reviewed about students, calls for student-instructor interaction in order to decrease anxiety and increase motivation. The need for interaction is additionally associated with the selection and implementation of specific media within the distance education course.
As a form of non-traditional education, distance education serves mainly adults and those adult students possess unique needs, motivations, goals and self-concepts. In a qualitative study with 1,000 adults Aslanian & Brickell (1988) developed a profile of an adult distance education learner. They found that, in general, the students are married (61%), female (58%), part-time students (80%), employed full time (71%), and paying for their own schooling (60%). Seventy-five percent of the adults surveyed were between the ages of twenty-five and forty-four years of age. Apt and Enert (1983) compiled student characteristics at six open learning programs and found similar results. International results were found to be congruent in work done by Van Enckevort, Harry, Marin and Schultz (1987) at four European distance education universities. Administration, instructors, and curriculum designers must take the needs of the adult student population into account when proposing theoreticaland andragogically based instruction designed for distance education programs (Verduin & Clark, 1991).
The adult student generally enters the learning environment, whether traditional or distant, with a high degree of motivation (Ehrman, 1990). Knowles' (1984) learner-focused theory of andragogy suggests that much of adults' intentional learning activity is motivated by desire to move from their current level of proficiency to a new, higher level. Verduin & Clark (1991) agree with both Knowles and Ehrman in their statement: "Discrepancies between adults' current level and desired proficiency level directly affect motivation and achievement in both learning activities and life roles " (p. 25).
Although adults possess a high degree of motivation, the technology associated with distance education, coupled with the distance separating the student and instructor, leads to high degrees of anxiety. Anxiety in learning has occasionally been described as helpful but more often treated in terms of its negative affects (Aggasiz, 1971). A negative view of anxiety comes from Darke (1988) who believes anxiety can debilitate cognitive processing. The importance of student anxiety cannot be underestimated in facilitating two way interaction between students and instructors in the distance education setting. The painful anxieties that learners experience in any instructional setting tend to be exacerbated when that learning is mediated by technology (Garrison, 1989).
Other distance education researchers (Keegan, 1988; Lewis, 1988) have questioned the need for too much student / instructor interaction. They see a large amount of interaction as inhibiting the independence of the learner. Although distance education is premised on creating the potential for greater independence for the learner, it is often "just as confining and inflexible as other forms of education" (Lewis, 1988 p.9). Sewart (1987) suggests that distance education students, perhaps, have greater freedom but with that freedom comes responsibilities. Freedom demands that the student make a number of important decisions which would normally be made for him. "It is an interesting and perhaps sometimes infuriating paradox this provision of flexibility to cater for individuals needs inevitably results in increasing complexity of administrative and organizational procedures which may present the student with problems. " (Sewart, 1987 p. 168).
Instruction and Learner Support.
The issue of learner support has received wide attention in distance education. The research, however, has been varied and inconclusive. After examining one hundred seven articles to determine whether there were predictors of successful student support, Dillon and Blanchard (1991) conclude that the reported research was mixed. They propose a model to examine the support needs of the distance student, related to institutional characteristics, course content and the technology. In a study analyzing learner support services in a state-wide distance education system, Dillon, Gunawardena and Parker (1992) outline the function and effectiveness of one learner support system and make recommendations for examining student-program interactions. Feasley (1991) comments that although research on student support falls largely into the evaluation category, there are some very useful case studies and institutional surveys such as reports issued by FernUniversitat, National Home Study Council which summarize statistics about student services for a number of institutions. Wright (1991) comments that the largest number of studies related to student support have been conducted outside the United States with large distance education programs. The student support activities reported are: pre-enrollment activities, tutorial services as well as counseling and advising services.
In addition to student support, several ethical and administrative issues related to students are repeated in the current literature as well. The mediation of technology coupled with the distance between instructor and student poses questions related to admission, counseling and retention. Reed & Sork (1990) provide evidence that admission criteria and intake systems should take into account the unique demands of the adult learner (i.e.. motivation, anxiety, interactions and learning style). Nelson (1988) states that admission requirements should consider the effects of the individual's cognitive styles as these often affect student achievement in programs characterized by mediated communications and limited personal contact.
Combined with the institutions' responsibilities related to admissions procedures is the responsibility of counseling students into and out of programs where the learner and advisor are physically separated (Reed & Sork, 1990). Herein two issues arise. First, the nearly impossible task of understanding the life situation of the learner when distance and time interfere with communication, makes counseling a difficult task at best. Second, the monetary requirements of the distance education institution and the well-being of the student who may or may not be advised into a distance education environment must be considered. Reed & Sork (1990) obsrve that students counseled out of distance education represent a loss of revenue. Counseling in a traditional setting requires expertise in a number of psychological and academic areas. However, counseling from a distance is a highly complex process which calls for a variety of methods, materials, and a knowledge of adult learner characteristics (Verduin & Clark, 1991).
The recent literature has offered various profiles of the distance education student. Counseling professionals should review the research on student needs and develop new methodologies for assisting students at a distance. Additional research is called for in all areas of student interaction with the learning environment.
Learning and Characteristics of Learners.
The study of learning and characteristics of learners engages the largest number of researchers and includes studies of learning styles, attitudes, personality, locus of control, motivation and attrition. Included are general studies about cognition and metacognition as well as specific studies related to the particular needs of the distance learner. Many studies have been single group evaluations, few with randomization of subjects or programmatic investigations. Some exploratory research has involved a small number of participants in short interventions. Although these efforts yield interesting insights, they have not helped solve the problem of isolating and testing variables which might predict academic success. Experimental studies often use thin descriptions and do not provide deep contextual information. Descriptive studies often lack generalizability are not qualitatively rich.
Research reports which do appear in the literature are often inconclusive. Reports in the literature suggest that some combination of cognitive style, personality characteristics, and self-expectations can be predictors of success in distance education programs. It appears that those students who are most successful in distance learning situations tend to be independent, autonomous learners who prefer to control their own learning situations.
Characteristics besides independence which appears to be predictors of success are high self-expectations and self-confidence (Laube, 1992) , academic accomplishment (Coggins, 1988; Dille & Mexack, 1991) and external locus of control (Baynton, 1992). Another motivation which reportedly influences academic persistence is the desire to improve employment possibilities,(von Prummer, 1990). Research findings suggest that it is the combination of personal (such as learning style), environmental and social factors which must be taken into account when predicting academic success in distance learning programs.
Verduin & Clark (1991) examined learning styles within the distance education setting and reviewed the research done on learning styles by Canfield in 1983 . Canfield developed a learning style inventory that conceptualized learning styles as composed of preferred conditions, content, mode and expectancy scores. Verduin & Clark (1991) believe this information can be helpful to educators in planning courses for students who will receive the instruction from a distance. They indicate that an understanding of how individual learners approach learning may make it possible for the distance educator to see a pattern of learning styles and plan or adjust course presentations accordingly. They conclude by saying that adults may or may not learn more easily when the style of presentation matches the students learning style, but when the two do match, the students report being more satisfied with the course.
Perhaps the most interesting work in cognition appears outside the traditional confines of the distance education literature. Research which examines the interaction of learners and delivery media is currently being conducted with multimedia. These studies examine learning and problem solving in asynchronous, virtual environments in which the learner is encouraged to progress and interact with learning materials in a very individual way. In the Jasper experiment, for example, math problems are anchored in authentic real world situations portrayed on videodisc (Van Haneghan, Barron, Young, Williams, Vye, & Bransford, 1992). It was hypothesized that the attributes of videodisc, which allow the portrayal of rich audio and visual images of a problem situation, would enhance the problem solving abilities of learners. Research results showed significant gains for the video-based group over the text based group, not only in solving the original Jasper problems, but in identifying and solving similar and related problems. The rich video-based format context was found to simulate a real world context for problem solving (Van Haneghan, et al., 1992). In a similar vein, the Young Children's literacy project uses a Vygotsky scaffolding approach to support the construction of mental model building skills for listening and storytelling (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1991). Programs like Jasper and the Young Children's literacy project provide robust sensory environments for developing metacognitive strategies and participating in critical thinking. These cognitive approaches to teaching abstract thinking skills have found fertile ground in the design and development of multimedia programs.
Individualized instruction delivered in multimedia settings has begun to blur the distinction between distance education and traditional education. The use of computer technologies to enhance thinking has generated interest in all areas of the curriculum. Researchers are examining ways to decontextualize classroom learning by anchoring and situating problems to be solved as real life events (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). Collaborative interactions between learner and technology have caused cognitive psychologists to re-examine the effects of computer technology on intellectual performance. Salomon, Perkins & Globerson (Salomon, Perkins, & Globerson, 1991) call on educators to investigate the learning activities which new technologies promote. They argue that it is this collaborative cognitive processing between intelligent technology and learner which may have the potential for affecting human intellectual performance.
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