Issues Related to Teaching.
Studies that examine teaching in distance education address the developing role of the instructor, the need for decreasing resistance as traditional educators begin to use distance delivery systems and finally, faculty attitude toward the use of technology. Altered roles for faculty who teach in distance education settings is a common thread found throughout the literature. Sammons (1989) sees a need for definition of the role of teacher. He stresses that without this definition, prepackaged, mass distribution of education will result. Holmberg's (1989) theory of guided didactic conversation suggests that a relationship exists between the faculty's role in the conversation and student performance. Smith's (1991) qualitative study places students' involvement at the center of the foundation for distance education teaching activities. The extent to which faculty roles are modified by the distance education environment is related to how the technology is used (Dillon & Walsh, 1992).
Some educators express concern that the use of packaged television courses creates negative consequences for mediated instruction. Sammons (1989) notes that the teaching role is an interactive, social process and questions whether presenting a telecourse or mass producing learning material for presentation at a distance is teaching. Peters (1983) lends an organizational perspective in his comparison of distance teaching to an industrial enterprise. He reports on the mass production of learning materials, mechanization, automation, quality control and other operational activities. According to Peters, the teacher need not teach in a personal, face-to- face mode, but rather should provide cost-effective instruction which can reach large numbers of students.
The emergence of increasingly student-centered learning activities of the 1970's, facilitated by technology in the 1980's, is contributing to an evolution of the role of faculty in the 1990's (Beaudoin, 1990). In particular, the increase in distance education enrollment will profoundly impact faculty members' instructional roles. Rather than transmit information in person, many faculty will have to make the adjustment to monitoring and facilitating the work of geographically distant learners (Bates, 1991). Faculty accustomed to the more conventional teaching roles will be required to accommodate new skills and assume expanding roles (Kember & Murphy, 1990).
This role shift from the European model of teacher as the exclusive source of information to one of facilitator is a difficult and threatening situation for most teachers. The role of teacher is not becoming obsolete but instead is being transformed (Beaudoin, 1990). Educators, and in particular those in distance educational environments, must be proficient at both delivery of content and the operation of the technology. Beaudoin goes on to point out that the teacher's' role in the 90's is becoming one of facilitator and bridge between student and the learning source (i.e. computer, television).
With new technologies being capable of delivering instruction, teachers are entering into a partnership with the technology. Garrison (1989) notes that while the teacher must be aware of the external aspects of learning, those related to the technology, it is the internal cognitive aspects of the learning experience that remain in the hands of the teacher. Ramsden (1988) sees the role of the distance education instructor as including the challenge of dialogue and interaction. "Machines", Ramsden says, "transmit information as if it were an unquestionable truth" (p. 52). The teacher's role, which must include dialogue, is to challenge the seemingly unquestionable truths and to elicit meaning for the student.
Dillon & Walsh (1992) see a lack of research focus on the role adaptations of faculty, and they recommend future research on this topic. In their review of current literature, Dillon & Walsh found only 24 of 225 articles on faculty roles. Research by Garrison (1990) indicates that educators are resistant to adaptation and to introduction of technology into previously designed classes. The literature suggests that faculty attitudes improve as experience with distance education increases, and as faculty become more familiar with the technology. Taylor & White (1991) support this idea in their findings of positive attitudes from faculty who have completed the first distance education class, but their study also indicates a faculty preference for face-to-face traditional teaching. The reason most often cited in their qualitative study is lack of student interaction. Additionally Taylor & White found through interviews and surveys that faculty agree that distance teaching is not appropriate for all content areas or for all students.
There is a lack of training opportunity in distance education, which could help faculty to overcome anxieties about technology and might improve teacher attitudes. Most teacher inservice programs that deal with technology teach how to operate equipment, with little attention paid to the more important aspects of how to incorporate technology into instruction. Virtually none address the concept and practice of distance education as a unique enterprise with different techniques of instruction from the traditional classroom.
In addition to conducting research on the emerging roles of faculty involved in distance education activities, studies are needed to examine faculty attitudes. Many teachers have a natural concern that technology will replace them in the classroom. It is important, says Hawkridge (1991), for teachers in training to be stimulated to a positive attitude toward technology as a means of enhancing the quality of the human interaction, and not to see technology as a dehumanizing influence. Hawkridge is joined by other researchers who call for future study in the area of instructor role development. As technology becomes a means for future educational delivery, a new view of the profession of teaching may need to be developed.
Policy and Management
State and national policies on the use of telecommunication technologies for distance education have been slow to develop in the United States. Many other countries have had well developed national plans for the implementation of distance education delivery systems over large geographic areas. Countries in which education is centralized at the national level are often those with the largest distance education enterprises. Countries in Asia, the Middle East, Latin America and Europe that have national policies for the development of distance education often use communication infrastructures which are already in place to deliver massive programs over broadcast media (McIsaac, Murphy, & Demiray, 1988). As is the case with the area of learner support, the literature in theory and policy management is concerned largely with institutional evaluation studies which are extremely useful to countries that are looking for prototype models for establishing large scale programs, but which does not offer testable hypotheses or rich, detailed qualitative analyses. These international evaluation reports of large scale distance education projects raise issues of national educational priorities, funding sources and policy determination.
In the United States, the most significant early study to be done on a large scale was Linking for Learning (Office of Technology Assessment, 1989). This report was the first to examine national and state telecommunication initiatives, and make recommendations for a plan of action, based on needs of state and local schools. Because distance education in the United States is not supported by a central educational authority as in other countries, development of national and state policy is slower in developing. Key policy issues now receiving attention include: funding, equal access to high quality education, effectiveness of educational systems, licensing of distance education programs, and equal access to delivery systems (Dirr, 1991). Donaldson (1991) calls for application of organization theory to issues of management and administration in distance education.
Finally, we might ask what conclusions we can draw from the collection of research studies in this rapidly growing area. It seems evident that research has been conducted from many perspectives and in many disciplines. As the body of research studies grows, methods such as meta-analysis can help us analyze the growing body of information. Meta-analysis, the application of qualitative and quantitative procedures for the purpose of integrating, synthesizing and analyzing various studies, would be particularly useful (McIsaac, 1990). Sophason & Prescott, (1988), believe that single studies cannot expect to provide definitive answers to theoretical questions. Instead a method such as meta-analysis is needed to identify underlying trends and principles emerging from the research.
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