DISTANCE LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES
Until the advent of telecommunications technologies, distance educators were hard pressed to provide for two-way real time interaction, or time-delayed interaction between students and the instructor or among peers. In the correspondence model of distance education, which emphasized learner independence, the main instructional medium was print and it was usually delivered using the postal service. Interaction between the student and the instructor usually took the form of correspondence of self-assessment exercises that the student completed and sent to the instructor for feedback. Formal group work or collaborative learning was very rare in distance education even though attempts have been made to facilitate group activities at local study centers. Also, traditionally, distance education courses were designed with a heavy emphasis on learner independence and were usually self-contained. With the development of synchronous (two-way, real time interactive technologies) such as audio teleconferencing, audio graphics conferencing and videoconferencing it is now possible to link learners and instructors who are geographically separated for real time interaction. However, the type of interaction that takes place is usually on a one-to-one basis, between one learner and another and between one learner and the instructor at one particular time. These technologies are not very suitable for promoting cooperative learning between groups of learners located at different sites. Also, the synchronous nature of these technologies may not be suitable or convenient for many distance learners.
The asynchronous (time-delayed) feature of computer-mediated communications (CMC), on the other hand, offers an advantage in that the CMC class is open 24 hours a day, seven days a week to accommodate the time schedules of distance learners. Although CMC systems may be either synchronous (real-time), or asynchronous (time-delayed), it is asynchronous CMC, because of it's time independent feature that is an important medium for facilitating cooperative group work among distance learners.
Current developments in digital communications and the convergence of telecommunications technologies exemplified by international standards such as ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network), make available audio, video, graphic and data communication through an ordinary telephone line on a desk top workstation. Therefore, as we look at distance learning technologies today and look to the future, it is important to think in terms of integrated telecommunication systems rather than simply video vs audio, vs. data systems. More and more institutions that teach at a distance are moving toward multi-media systems integrating a combination of technologies both synchronous and asynchronous that meets learner needs. Therefore, while in the 1970's and 1980's many distance education institutions throughout the world used print as a major delivery medium, by the year 2000 many institutions will probably have adopted telecommunications-based systems for the delivery of distance education. This does not necessarily mean that print will no longer be used in distance education. It is more likely that print will be used as a supplementary medium in most telecommunications-based systems, and better ways of communicating information through print will be investigated and incorporated into the design of study guides and other print-based media.
In order to describe the technologies used in distance education we have selected "The 4-Square Map of Groupware Options" that was developed by Johansen et. al. (1991) which is based on recent research in groupware. This model seemed most suitable to our purpose because we see distance education moving from highly individualized forms of instruction as in correspondence education, to formats that encourage teaching students as a group and collaborative learning among peers. The 4-Square Map of Groupware Option model is premised on two basic configurations that teams must cope with as they work: time and place. Teams or groups of people who work together on a common goal deal with their work in the same place at the same time as in face-to-face meetings, and sometimes they must work apart in different places and at different times as in the use of asynchronous computer conferencing. They also need to handle two other variations: being in different places at the same time as in the use of telephones for an audio teleconference, and at the same place at different times as in workplaces, study centers or laboratories. Based on these configurations, the four square model classifies four types of technologies that support the group process:1. Same Time/Same Place, 2. Different Time/Different Place, 3. Same Time/Different Place, and 4. Same Place/Different Time. These four categories are used for describing technologies that currently support distance teaching and learning.
While we use the four square model to discuss the major distance education technologies currently being used, we feel that this model does not lend itself very well to discussing new and future developments in integrated telecommunications. Since these integrated systems incorporate many of the features that we classify separately in the four square model, we have decided to describe new and future developments in a separate section titled: "Future Directions and Emerging Technologies, " which follows the discussion of the four square model.
Same Time/Same Place Instruction
Same Time/Same Place group interaction is the most familiar format of face-to-face meetings. Certain objectives in distance education programs can only be met by meeting face-to-face. The British Open University, which teaches entirely at a distance brings students on campus during the summer to participate in laboratory experiments. When course objectives require the careful demonstration, observation, practice and feedback of life threatening procedures such as a surgical procedure, it is important to organize face-to-face meetings. In a face-to-face setting accepted practices are only modified slightly to accommodate electronic media. Basic technologies that facilitate a face-to-face meeting involve an overhead projector, a flip chart, electronic blackboard or a projection system that displays computer screens via a LCD monitor. At the more sophisticated end are desk top workstations for each group member which run on special software that helps the group to brainstorm, generate ideas, rank solutions and vote. Also, a record of the group process can be produced at the conclusion of the groups' activities. IBM's Decision Conference Center in Bethesda, Maryland employs such sophisticated groupware to facilitate group decision making processes. However, innovative approaches are now being adopted to the design laboratory work at a distance by using technologies, as in the dissection of a fetal pig experiment that was designed by the University of Maine using a combination of two-way interactive television, videotape and group work at sites.
Same Time/Different Place Instruction
There are two kinds of Same Time/Different Place Instruction: 1. a meeting through a telecommunications medium or teleconferencing where participants who are separated by geographic distance can interact with each other simultaneously, and 2. the use of non-interactive media such as open broadcast television and radio to instruct a vast number of students at the same time without the ability for the students to call back and interact with the originators of the program.
Teleconferencing can be classified into four separate categories depending on the technologies that they use: audio teleconferencing, audiographics teleconferencing, video teleconferencing and computer conferencing. There are two types of computer conferencing: synchronous computer conferencing when two or more computers are linked at the same time so that participants can interact with each other, and asynchronous computer conferencing when participants interact with each other at a time and place convenient to them. Asynchronous computer conferencing is described under Different Time/Different Place instruction.
The four major types of teleconferencing vary in the types of technologies, complexity of use and cost. However, they have several features in common. All of them use a telecommunication channel to mediate the communication process, link individuals or groups of participants at multiple locations, and provide for live, two-way communication or interaction. One advantage of teleconferencing systems is that they can link a large number of people who are geographically separated. If satellite technology is used for the teleconference, then, there is no limit to the number of sites that can be linked through the combination of several communications satellites. In order to participate in a teleconference, participants usually have to assemble at a specific site in order to use the special equipment that is necessary for a group to participate in the conference. The only exceptions are audio teleconferences which can link up any individual who has access to a telephone, computer conferences that can link up individuals, their computers and modems at home, or direct broadcast satellites that can deliver information directly to participant's homes. However, if more than two people are present at a participating site then it is necessary for the participants to gather at a location which is equipped with teleconferencing equipment in order to participate in a teleconference. This may restrict access for some learners. In terms of control, participants will have control over the interaction that takes place in a teleconference only to the extent that the instructional design allows for it. However, if the teleconference is taped for later review, students will have more control in the use of the conference.
The unique advantage of teleconferences is that they provide for two-way interaction between the originators and the participants. Teleconferences need to be designed to optimize the interaction that takes place during the conference. Interaction needs to be thought of not only as interaction that occurs during the teleconference but pre- and post conference activities that allow groups to interact. Monson (1978) describes four design components for teleconferences: humanizing, participation, message style and feedback. Humanizing is the process of creating an atmosphere which focuses on the importance of the individual and overcomes distance by generating group rapport. Participation is the process of getting beyond the technology by providing opportunities for the spontaneous interaction between participants. Message style is presenting what is to be said in such a way that it will be received, understood and remembered. Feedback is the process of getting information about the message which helps the instructor and the participants complete the communications loop. Monson (1978) offers excellent guidelines for incorporating these four elements into teleconferencing design. The symbolic characteristics and the interfaces that are unique to each medium are discussed with the description of each technology.
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