Using a computer can be a harrowing experience. Some people have no knowledge of computers. These people are simply scared to death of them. There are other people that computer usage comes almost natural to them. How do these people learn to use a computer so well that it becomes second nature to them? Are these folks taught computer literacy in structured classrooms with structured lessons or do people experiment to the point of actually learning? Chances are that most people have learned some computer techniques and software programs through experimentation. How do the learning theories apply to computers? What do some of the theorists say about computers? What is the best way to learn? Is distance education via computer feasible? The purpose of this paper is to examine some of the major theories and how they apply to learning to use a computer and using a computer via distance education. The primary theories that will be examined are constructivism and behaviorism.

First, let us look at behaviorism. Behaviorism examines the way people or animals react to some sort of stimuli. There are several types of stimuli that may affect the way we act, for instance: punishment, conditioning, and negative and positive reinforcement. For example, if a teacher rewards us with a high grade, we believe that we are really learning and doing well. If a teacher gives a low grade, then we think that what we are doing is pretty much useless. Some definitions of behaviorism state that it focuses on a new behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic. Sometimes behaviorism can also include the lecture style approach as well. We are rewarded for sitting through a lecture and essentially regurgitating the teacher's opinions at the end of the class. Most people are familiar with behaviorism or its concepts. Most people also have a bit of trouble with constructivism and its concepts.

Constructivism is more like when people have to construct their own interpretation of what they see. People will not learn directly from other people. That is, there is no knowledge transfer between people. This usually involves more experimentation. When someone experiments, that person usually constructs his or her own reality of knowledge. One researcher sums up constructivism as "instruction within the constructivist paradigm typically involves active learning, peer tutoring, collaborative learning, and situating cognitive experiences in authentic activities. Constructivism recognizes learning as the process of constructing meaning about, or making sense of, our experiences." Many of these qualities of constructivism are usually not found in the standard classroom, especially in post-secondary education levels. Nevertheless, the qualities can be found within innovative classrooms among students and teachers alike with the initiative and motivation to make it work.

Robert Edgar constructed a series of matrixes that outline Skinner, Piaget, and Vygotsky, and how their theories interconnect with computer technology. Edgar did this by comparing Skinner to mainframes, Piaget to personal computers, and Vygotsky to the World Wide Web. See below:

It may be important to note how Edgar thought that Skinner placed emphasis on memorization and narrow-minded thought patterns. This seems to be a good example of behaviorism and the "read and regurgitate" process that is still very prevalent in college today. Learning is preprogrammed and all under the control of the teacher and mainframe. Someone said this resembled a robot-like atmosphere.

In a traditional classroom, the teacher lectures to the students each day about a particular procedure while the children sit at desks and listen or take notes. Assigned readings are the dominant medium. The class is held in the computer lab, and children take turns working individually at the computers on weekly or biweekly programming assignments. Competence in programming is assessed via written tests, and through evaluation of the weekly programs written by the children to prove their competence with the assigned programming procedure.

Next:

Edgar's ideas on Piaget seem pretty good at demonstrating the freedom of thought and movement that a learner would have in a constructivist-computing environment.

Edgar finished with some thoughts on Vygotsky:

Edgar claims that his matrix of Vygotsky's theory also demonstrates the theme of the zone of proximal development. In these terms, one might say that the Web is a good medium to distance education.

Up to the 1980s, distance education was considered as part of the industrial era. The industrial approach to education is prescriptive, objectified and depersonalized. Diversity is also absent. There is no personal relationship between teacher and student. The outcome is completely objective. There is an unnecessary correlation between this and distance education. The research literature suggests this is changing. The research points to a post-industrial era for distance education via computer. Some courses that are offered now are via computer and multi-conferencing with email or chat program software. This enables collaborative learning in distance education that points to a more constructivist approach. For example, students online can take experiences that they have had and integrate them with new ones. Then, students can share these experiences with other students. Relating these things to others via email and chat while being monitored by the teacher can support the constructivist approach.

Many major corporations are now contracting with distance education outlets for their employees. This way, the employees do not need to leave the company's property. Some of the future benefits to this have yet to unfold. Here in Arizona, Motorola and Intel, just to name two, are contracted with Western International University in this manner. The University of Phoenix is renowned for their distance education programs now.

On a world view basis, not all schools require computer literacy or even use them. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development in Paris classified countries into two groups. The first group encompasses countries that has "restricted" policies governing computer literacy in schools. These countries only allow computer science into the vocational and academic secondary schools. The policies that governed this also state that the programs should be very comprehensive. This means that countries such Germany have a select group of people that are computer literate.

The second group, which includes the U.S., pushes and encourages literacy across the curriculum from day one. This has been very slow to develop.

Other countries like Norway, Scotland, and the Netherlands have had government mandates for computer literacy since 1986. France is the first country to integrate across the curriculum for literacy. France has set a good example in this context.

So, what is a good way to present material online to students that can represent constructivism? Well, Gagné has presented a possible instructional design:

Gagné's steps of instruction

All of these appear as though they could be successfully implemented into a lesson design on the Internet for distance education or simply useful for computer training and literacy.

One of the researchers thinks that there are two obstacles to changing our system as it is now. First, there is little awareness of the appropriate use of the technology that is available now. This is evident if we look at the cross-national aspects and the history behind distance education. In addition, there are many teachers that do not know about the information on the Internet and some that do not know how to use it. We cannot teach what we do not know ourselves.

The second obstacle that is seen is assessment. It will be very difficult to assess with a constructivist approach to computer learning. The researcher writes of an experiment done with videotaping the process in action. This has been demonstrated to be successful. However, it may be difficult to do if the learner is at home. Another form of assessment that is brought up is the portfolio. There has been success with this too. The literature shows that all of these possible avenues to assessment can work but they are more demanding on the teacher. The research further shows that it is worth the effort.

How do people learn to use a computer so well that it becomes second nature to them? Sometimes practice makes things automatic. Are these folks taught computer literacy in structured classrooms with structured lessons or do people experiment to the point of actually learning? Chances are that most people have learned some computer techniques and software programs through experimentation. Do the learning theories apply to computers? Yes they do. We have looked at what do some of the theorists say about computers. What is the best way to learn? At this point, it is probably a matter of choice. Is distance education via computer feasible? Yes, it is getting there. The purpose of this paper has been to examine some of the major theories and how they apply to learning to use a computer and using a computer via distance education. The primary theories that were examined were constructivism and behaviorism. Using a computer can be a harrowing experience.

Print References:

Fosnot, C. T. (Ed.). (1996). Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives, and Practice. Teachers College Press.

Catherine Fosnot edits this book. It includes writings from professors across the curriculum regarding different experiences using constructivism in the classroom.

Moore, M. G., & Kearsley G. (1996). Distance Education: A Systems View. Wadsworth Publishing.

This book examines the big picture of distance education.

Perkins, D. (1992). Smart Schools: Better Thinking and Learning for Every Child. The Free Press.

This book introduces the concept of constructivism in the classroom.

Online References:

Adventure of Jasper Woodbury

http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/projects/funded/jasper/intro/Jasperintro.html

This site introduces the purpose of Jasper Woodbury. It explains who created Jasper and why it has been created. It states what is different about Jasper.

Computers - Constructionism - Constructivism

http://metric.ma.ic.ac.uk/~pkent/construction/construction.html

Phillip Kent explores the differences and the similarities between computers, constructionism, and constructivism. Kent submits a historical account of these theories and how these have all been integrated into the University setting.

Constructivism and CMC

http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/emc703/7.htm

This is one of the sites for a graduate class taught by Dr. Marina McIsaac. This site has several different readings on constructivism and computer mediated communication.

Constructivism, Technology, and the Future of Classroom Learning

http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/k12/livetext/docs/construct.html

This is a paper written by Erik F. Strommen. Strommen examines the theoretical basis for constructivism and technology, and how this will affect the future classrooms of the children.

Constructivist Checklist

http://calvin.stemnet.nf.ca/~elmurphy/emurphy/cle5d.html

This is a checklist of the tenets of constructivism and how those tenets are applied to the Jasper Project.

Constructivist Theory Unites Distance Learning and Teacher Education

http://edie.cprost.sfu.ca/it/constructivist-learning

This paper by Dr. Teri Crotty explains how the paradigm of constructivism is approached in distance education. Crotty also examines the constructivist design in distance education.

The Constructivist Zone

http://unr.edu/homepage/jcannon/ejse/ejsev2n2ed.html

This editorial by David T. Crowther provides a historical account of constructivism as well as the theoretical background. Crowther also looks at constructivism as applied to science.

Creating Technology-Supported Learning Communities

http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~bwilson/lcchapter.html

This is a draft of a chapter for a book written by David Jonassen, Kyle Peck, and Brent Wilson. This examines technology and the classroom. The authors suggest ways to make it work.

EduWeb

http://www.netspot.unisa.edu.au/eduweb/

This is a reference site for educational web course design. It includes theories of learning, interaction, and a glossary.

Enriching Computer-Mediated Group Learning by Coupling Constructivism with Collaborative Learning

http://www.usq.edu.au/electpub/e-jist/klemm.htm

This is a paper written by W. R. Klemm and J. R. Snell. The authors look at group learning and collaborative learning, and how these integrate into computerized learning.

Five Essential Rules for Designing Distance Degree Marketing Materials for Adult Learners

http://www.geteducated.com/articles/5rules.htm

Vicky Phillips makes suggestions for marketing learning materials for adults.

An Interpretation Construction Approach to Constructivist Design

http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/ilt/papers/ICON.html

This paper is written by John B. Black and Robert O. McClintock. The authors explain an interpretive approach to the constructivist design.

Jasper in More Detail

http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/projects/funded/Jasper/theory/theory.html

This site provides more information on the theoretical basis for Jasper. It also provides information on the SMART challenge series.

The New Plagiarism: Seven Antidotes to Prevent Highway Robbery in an Electronic Age

http://fromnowon.org/may98/cov98may.html

This site contains seven suggestions for keeping plagiarism in check. Jamie McKenzie provides these in light of the technology of the WWW.

PC is to Piaget as WWW is to Vygotsky

http://www.iconceptual.com/Siggraph.html

This author provides thoughtful insight to the theoretical basis of constructivism and other theories as applied to the computer. This site is sometimes difficult to connect. It may be a server problem.

Psychological Theories; a Brief Survey of the Changing Views of Learning

http://www.uib.no/People/sinia/CSCL/web_struktur-4.htm

This site provides quick definitions of the major learning theories such as cognition, behaviorism, and constructivism.

Reflections on Constructivism and Instructional Design

http://www.cudenver.edu/~bwilson/construct.html

This paper was written by Brent G. Wilson. Wilson provides a look at constructivism and instructional design. He defines instructional design theory and how the design should look in the end.

The Wired Classroom

http://fromnowon.org/mar98/flotilla.html

This site suggests a theory for establishing a wired classroom in the practical sense.