According to Sara McNeil (1998), instructional design as a process can be defined as, "the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities" (http://www.coe.uh.edu/courses/cuin6373/whatisid.html).
In chapter six of Distance Education: A Systems View, Moore and
Kearsley (1998) explain an instructional design that is "widely used at
all levels"Instructional Systems Design (p. 102). It was developed after
World War II in lieu of the demand for more efficient training techniques
that were generated by the war and stems from many different disciplines,
including systems theory, behavioral psychology, and communications and
information theory. It places an emphasis on planning and consists of the
following stages:
As Moore and Kearsley (1996) observe, "The fundamental principle of the ISD approach is that all aspects of learning and instruction should be defined behaviorally, so that what the student is expected to learn can be measured, and teaching can concentrate on the student's observable performance" (p. 102). This is an interesting comment since current theory strays from behaviorist theory and toward cognitive theory. According to Braxton et al. (1995), "Behaviorists believe that learning results in a change in the learner's behavior. The focus of behaviorists is on the outputs of the learning process. Cognitivists believe that learning occurs when learners are able to add new concepts and ideas to their cognitive structure by recognizing a relationship between something they already know and what they are learning. The focus of cognitivists is on the inputs of the learning process" (http://www.seas.gwu.edu/student/sbraxton/ISD/learning_theory.html). Indeed, there are many other designs besides Instructional Systems Design.
For example, a Learner-Centered Design (http://www.reeUsda.gov/new/programs/distanced/id2.htm#Steps)
consists of the following stages:
Speaking of another instructional design, Braxton et. al (1995) write, "Tripp and Bichelmeyer's Rapid Prototyping Design Model is a four level process that is intended to create instruction for lessons as opposed to entire curricula. The process stages include performing a needs analysis, constructing a prototype, utilizing the prototype to perform research and installing the final system. This model relies on expert instructional designers to utilize heuristics as well as their past experience and intuition to guide the design" (http://www.seas.gwu.edu/student/sbraxton/ISD/id_models.html).
Each instructional design will vary depending on the expertise level, context, purpose and uses, theoretical basis, knowledge structure, and orientation. Some designs can be used to develop an entire course, whereas others can be used to create as simple lesson plan.
Although there are many different designs, Moore and Kearsley (1996)
outline some general design priniciples that apply to all designs:
Jon Storslee's course, EMC 598: Internet for Teachers(http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/
~storslee/internet2.html),
follows these principles pretty well.
The course is well-structured since Storslee since has visual graphics and links that are all interconnected to the different requirements of the course. He provides a daily class schedule and notes for each day's class.
Although Storslee states his objectives for the course, I must admit that it is easy to forget the objectives since they are not integrated to each assignment, but are simply tacked on as an introduction to the course, something that many teachers, including myself, are guilty of doing.
Storslee does a great job breaking the course down into units with specific tasks to complete a long the way. His units are small and not overwhelming, and each one is depicted by a graphic. Some of his units consist of searching the Internet and joining a listserv.
There is not much interaction or planned participation involved in his class, except that the students are allowed to view each other's completed assignments via a homework directory and are required to post bios on a class listserv.
The course, at times, does not feel complete. Although there are links to other web sites that show examples of lesson plans, per se, there are not links to how a student in the class might create a lesson plan, excluding the homework directory (and only when and if any students have already posted the assignment).
Storslee does repeat certain links (such as the Do's and Don'ts of Web Design), but since he doesn't have any written content/lectures he doesn't have any information to really repeat.
Although Storslee's class material is well synthesized and fits well together, it does not integrate student's work into the course as content or discussion as Moore and Kearsley (1996) suggest.
The instructor does stimulate the students by using a variety of information and technology. He uses video conferencing, Moos, Muds, the Web, e-mail, and listservs, to name a few.
His assignments are definitely open-ended. He allows the students to complete assignments based on their own content knowledge and personal or professional goals. For instance, he allows his students to create a personal/business/school home page based on their personal interests.
Storslee also is very positive in his feedback, telling the students when grades are posted via a class listserv and sending regular personal e-mails praising students for a job well done.
Storslee also tries to continually evaluate his course. His last assignment for the course is an optional assignment in which he asks the students for feedback on how he might improve the course. Overall, Storslee has provided a useful, practical, well-developed course. However, there is always room for improvement, especially in the area of planned participation and completeness.
Moore, M. G. & Kearsley, G. (1996). Distance education: A systems view. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Online
Braxton, S., Bronico, K., & Looms, T. (1995). Instructional models based on learning theory. http://www.seas.gwu.edu/student/sbraxton/ISD/learning_theory.html
Bridwell, C., Bretz, R., DeVries, H., King, J., White, B. (1996). Instructional design for distance education. http://www.reeUsda.gov/new/programs/distanced/id.htm
McNeil, S. (1998). What is instructional design? http://www.coe.uh.edu/courses/cuin6373/whatisid.html
Storslee, J. (1998). EMC 598: Internet for Teachers. http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~storslee/internet2.html