Figure 1. Nodes and links.
Technology and Distance Education [TOP]
Recent advances in telecommunications and microcomputers are changing the way we interact with each other, communicate, and access information. The world is becoming a global network within which the use of telecommunication technologies is a major component (Romiszowski, 1994). Negroponte (1995) postulated that, as a result of the information superhighway and electronic networks, the process of socialization among people will change and it will be taking place in cyberspace independent of place and time. Furthermore, he argued that "Schools will change to become more like museums and playgrounds for children to assemble ideas and socialize with other children all over the world" (p. 6).
The World Wide Web (WWW) is used internationally for business, marketing, accessing information, and education. On-line hypermedia's implications for education stem from the ease with which it can be developed and accessed world-wide. While access to the WWW by schools is increasing, students, educators, and scientists from around the world will be able to collaborate and create new learning communities which will foster a new approach to learning, interacting, and exchanging of information ( Carvin, 1996; Learning Through Collaborative Visualization Project, 1996).
As the internet enters the classroom, electronic networks will become even more important for education. The Survey of Advanced Telecommunications in U.S. Public Schools, K-12 conducted in fall 1995 for the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) showed that: (a) fifty percent of public schools in the U.S. have access to the Internet, and (b) Eighty-five percent of public schools have access to some kind of computer network. The internet provides new opportunities for interaction and accessing information and it has become an important delivery medium of distance education.
Telecommunication technologies used in Distance Education can cut the costs of education, improve access to education for a larger group of people, and provide time flexibility to learners by creating both synchronous and asynchronous learning environments (Barker & Dickson, 1996; Mason, 1994; WGU, 1996). The use of technology allows educators and instructional developers to create virtual learning communities. Several courses that are offered on-line are listed under The World Lecture Hall. An example of a virtual university which will use advance technologies to deliver education at a distance is the Western Governor's University (WGU) which was proposed by the Western Governor's Association. The vision behind this effort was based on the use of telecommunications and interactive technologies in order to provide cost-effectively accredited education, and improve access to learning. One of the major tasks that instructional designers involved with the WGU initiative will have to perform is the designing of the on-line courses.
Designing the On-line Course [TOP]
Designing an on-line course can be a real challenge for educators and instructional designer's. Sixty years of research have shown no significant difference between different delivery media of instruction (Clark & Surgue, 1991; Clark, 1983). The important factors in any instructional environment are the strategies employed, and the overall design of instruction. In order for an online course to be effective, it has to be as well designed as any other traditional course (Eastmont & Ziegahn, 1995; Remmers & Veugelers, 1994). Furthermore, there are some extra considerations relating to the delivery medium of online instruction.
Eastmond and Ziegahn (1995) emphasized the importance of careful design for on-line courses, and discussed several considerations relating to the effectiveness of the course. Like any other course, on-line courses need to follow an instructional design model that is grounded on theory and research (Price, 1996). Although Eastmond and Ziegahn (1995) support a more open, flexible design of instruction, the process I will describe later on is based on a more structured model. Some of the considerations discussed by Eastmond and Ziegahn (1995) are: the selection of on-line and off-line activities, decisions with regards to how much of the content will be on-line and when the learner will be referred to other resources (readings, videos, CD-ROMs, other WWW sites, etc.), issues with regards to promoting participation in the course, designing the syllabus, and facilitating on-line discussions. One of the components of on-line courses that use the Web is the designing of hypermedia environments that will be used to deliver or support instruction.
Hypertext-Hypermedia [TOP]
In its regular form, text is mainly linear. The reader follows a linear paging sequence when reading text from a book, or an article from a journal. On the contrary to regular text, hypertext is non-linear. In the words of Theodore Nelson (1987), who is regarded as the father of the term, hypertext means "non-sequential writing" (p. 29). The major components of any hypertext document are the nodes, which are the primary elements of information, and the links that tie the nodes together (see Figure 1). The size of the nodes can range from a paragraph of text, to a combination of images, sound, video, and to a larger amount of information. Links associate the nodes with regards to their semantic relationships. The link between node A and another node B will be a result of the semantic relationship of the two nodes, or a result of the hierarchical structure of the information in the hypertext system. The difference between a hypertext and hypermedia system is that in hypertext the nodes consist of text, whereas in hypermedia the nodes might consist of text, images, sounds, animations, and movies.
Figure 1. Nodes and links.
Nelson coined the term hypertext in 1965 but the idea goes back to 1945 when Vanevar Bush was the director of the government's Scientific Research and Development office. In his classic article "As we may think", Bush (1945) described his ideas about organizing the information to facilitate storage and retrieval with the help of the machine called memex. According to Bush (1945), "A memex is a device in which an individual stores all his books, records, and communications, and which is mechanized so that it may be consulted with exceeding speed and flexibility. It is an enlarged intimate supplement to his memory." The actual first usable hypertext system called Augment was developed by Douglas Engelbart in 1962 at Stanford Research Institute and it was designed to augment human intelligence (Barker, 1993).
Hypermedia Attributes, Memory, and Learning [TOP]
Hypermedia systems are usually used for either informational or instructional purposes (Romiszowski, 1990). When used as informational, hypermedia systems are similar to huge databases that store information and the user is allowed to browse, search, and retrieve information. Jonassen (1989) asserted that the difference between a database and a hypermedia system is that in a database information is represented in a "... two-dimensional (rows x columns)..." way whereas hypermedia systems "...can represent information multi-dimensionally..." (p. 17). When used as instructional, hypermedia is designed so that it carries the whole burden of instruction. It presents the instructional objectives and the material to the learners, guides them through activities, tests their performance, and provides them with feedback.
The accessing of information at a non-linear manner is one of the first advantages of hypermedia envisioned by pioneers in the field (Bush, 1945; Nelson, 1987). Some additional advantages associated with educational hypermedia are that it allows individualized instruction, it gives the learner greater control of the instructional sequence, it parallels the human memory structure, and it can provide multiple perspectives on a given topic (Conklin, 1987; Park & Hannafin, 1993; Nielsen, 1990).
The issue of learner control is one of the major advantages associated with hypermedia systems (Barker, 1993; Conklin, 1987; Jonassen & Grabinger, 1990; Romiszowski, 1990). The learners can browse, search, and navigate through a rich hypermedia system and look for specific information that will enable them to accomplish certain tasks. The level of learner control is usually defined by the degree of interactivity built in the system. According to Jonassen (1989) "The premise is that increased interactivity will produce greater attention to and comprehension of the information" (p. 14). Allowing the learners to select material, paths, and strategies, might not be very effective because often times the learners do not have the knowledge, and experience to select the right path, or the appropriate strategy. However, studies have shown that careful design can enable learners to make the right choices (Romiszowski, 1990).
Silva (1992) conducted a study to examine the influence of interactivity on learning in a hypermedia system. The results indicated that the highest scores were achieved by learners that were allowed to freely browse the material with an interactive plan available to them. Furthermore, it was found that the students of lower academic status learned more when their interaction with the system was limited to a sequential presentation of the information. One of the implications from this study is that students with different academic abilities will benefit in different ways from hypermedia systems.
Another attribute of hypermedia is that it parallels the way that human brain and memory work. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971) proposed a multistore model of the human memory system which is divided into three components: the sensory registers, the short term store or short term memory (STM), and the long term store or long term memory (LTM). The incoming information is recorded in the sensory registers which can be visual, auditory, or haptic (see Figure 2). The STM lasts only for a very brief time and here is where the control processes of rehearsal, coding, retrieval, decisions, and strategies take place (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971). The control processes are performed by the individual in order to facilitate the flow of information from STM to LTM. The information in the sensory registers stays there only for a very short time, and then it decays. If it is matched with information structures already existing in LTM called "schemata" then it is transferred to STM from the sensory registers.
Figure 2. Short and Long Term Memory. From "The control of Short Term Memory," by Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M., (1971), Scientific American, 225, 82-90.
Schemata are the basic cognitive units. Neiser (1976) described schemata as "the entire perceptual cycle" (p.54). Piaget proposed the terms assimilation and accommodation (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). Assimilation is the process during which humans, after perceiving their environment, assimilate new information using preexisting schemata. Accommodation is the process during which the preexisting cognitive structures or schemata are modified to accommodate the new information. Information stored in the LTM determines up to a great extent how incoming information is processed. It determines what we can learn and store in the LTM (Winn, 1993). Assimilation of new information depends upon preexisting schemata.
Building on schema theory Jonassen (1989) postulated that there are a lot of similarities between memory and hypermedia. He argued that "Schema are to memory as nodes are to hypertext. They are the building blocks of memory and hypertext. Hypertext resembles memory" (p. 23). When the learners use a hypermedia system they can access information in a non-linear fashion, and in a way that it best fits their own schemata. Hypertext, according to Jonassen (1989), can facilitate the acquisition of new knowledge. For learning to occur, incoming information should be matched with preexisting structures. Information in a hypertext system is usually structured according to the model of the expert's structure of knowledge. Hypertext systems can mirror an experts knowledge structure. Therefore, "a useful knowledge structure may be mapped more directly onto the learner's cognitive structure" (p. 86).
Another advantage of hypermedia systems is their multi-modal nature (Barker, 1993). Information is stored in more than one mode. Visual, verbal, and auditory information can be incorporated in such systems. Representation of information in multiple modes can improve learning and retention, only when there is an overlap between the different modalities (Hannafin & Hooper, 1993). If for example, text and sound are representing the same piece of information, then the likelihood of that information to be learned is increased. This is supported by Paivio's (1971, 1986) dual code theory according to which information can be stored in the LTM in a verbal-like (propositional or digital) mode, an image-like mode (iconic), or in a combination of the two. Representing information in both image and verbal-like forms has the advantage of being more easily retrieved and remembered (Pressley & Miller, 1987).
A Systems Approach to Instructional Design [TOP]
Before discussing the systematic process of designing hypermedia environments, it is necessary to briefly discuss the systems approach to Instructional Design (I.D.). Instructional Design deals with the methodology of designing instruction. One of the approaches employed towards I. D. is the systems approach which derived from general systems theory (Bertalanffy, 1968; Gustafson & Tillman 1991). A system was defined by Bertalanffy (1968) "as a set of elements standing in interrelations" (p. 55). All the major components that have an impact on instruction are a part of a system and they all work towards the same goal, which is learning (Dick & Carey, 1996). Models of I.D. are systems of linked events that guide the instructional development process. The main components of most of the models of I.D. are the statement of objectives, the selection of the appropriate instructional strategies, and the evaluation component.
A number of models have been developed over the years which were grounded on research from learning theories, communication theories, and the behavioral and cognitive sciences (Andrews & Goodson, 1991). The author reviewed several models and processes focusing on instructional development (Dick & Carey, 1996; Gagne, Briggs, & Wager, 1989; Smith & Ragan, 1993), and used them to develop a systematic process to designing hypermedia environments (see Figure 3). In addition to the theoretical instructional design models that it was based on, the process shown on Figure 3 also incorporates other factors and guidelines involved during the development of interactive multimedia treatments such as the design of the user interface, branching and interactivity, structuring of the information, and navigation tools (Barker, 1993; Jonassen, 1989; Park & Hannafin, 1993; Schwier & Misanchuk, 1993).
Figure 3. A systematic process for designing hypermedia.
Designing Hypermedia Environments [TOP]
The process discussed below is based on a number of questions and issues that need to be addressed at every step of the hypermedia development process.
PHASE I
Goal development:
The hypermedia system that will be created needs to be guided by a general goal. Why is this system developed instead of a different instructional module? Is it developed as an informational resource or as an instructional system? Since this hypermedia environment is going to be a part of an on-line course, it is implied that the goals of the course should be in consensus and alignment with the goals of the hypermedia system.
Target population - Learner Analysis:
Which is the target audience? What are the learner characteristics? How experienced are they in using hypermedia, and navigating the Web? Are the users familiar with microcomputers? What do the learners already know about the subject? What are their attitudes towards the subject and the delivery medium?
Needs Assessment:
What is the specific skill, knowledge, concept that needs to be taught? What are the skills that the learners lack? What gap is it to be bridged with this system?
Limitations:
Do all the learners have access to the internet and related technologies? What is the budget for developing the on-line course? How much of that budget will be applied for the development of the hypermedia system? (Money for software, hardware, build a team of professionals, etc.) The limited bandwidth will determine the general look of the system (limited use of video, sounds, animations, images). Such a project will require much more time for planning and development. Another factor can be the lack of skills for authoring HTML and creating Web documents.
Task Analysis:
What are the tasks that the learner will be expected to perform at the end of instruction? Are there any prerequisites that the learners must posses before entering this unit? What is the hierarchy of the tasks expected to be performed? These tasks are operationalized in the next step, which are the objectives.
Content analysis:
One of the major components of hypermedia development is the structuring of the information. Content analysis is very important for modularizing the content into small chunks. This step is crucial in determining the nodes and links of the system, branching and navigation, options provided, user interface design, etc.
Objectives:
If this is going to be an instructional system, then the objectives will specify what the learners' are expected to know at the end of instruction. How are they going to demonstrate their knowledge? If the system is going to be an informational resource, then certain guiding criteria need to be specified which will derive from the content analysis.
PHASE II: [TOP]
Write test items:
If the system is going to be used as instructional, then there needs to be a way to measure its effectiveness. Did the learner's actually learn what they were supposed to learn? How are they going to demonstrate their knowledge? These test items will derive from the task analysis and the specification of objectives discussed earlier in Phase I.
Strategies - Degrees of Interactivity:
What are the instructional strategies that will be employed in order to meet the instructional objectives? How will the information be presented? What kinds of examples will be used? Will there be any simulations, demonstrations, and tutorials on how to use the system? Will the system be highly interactive all the way through? Will the user have to respond, get feedback, and proceed to the next level? What kinds of practice sessions will be provided?
Design:
This stage is probably the most crucial and it will be discussed in detail. Some of the practical issues that are associated with the design stage are the selection of the authoring tool (since we are discussing the Web, then the authoring tool will be an HTML editor), delivery medium (on-line or CD-ROM), storage and distribution, etc. There might be instances that because of the limited bandwidth, some of the materials will be easier to be distributed to the learners on a CD-ROM (Technology Based Learning and Research, 1994).
Jonassen (1989) argued that the two major components of designing hypermedia are the structuring of the information (content) and the designing of navigation tools (user interface and options provided). An effective hypermedia environment should provide at the beginning a flowchart that illustrates the whole structure of the system and the semantic relationships between the sub-topics. Very often the user can get lost in the hypermedia system which can result in frustration (Conklin, 1987). Concept maps can be used at the beginning and be accessible to the user through out the system. These maps will allow the user to identify where they are at any point in the system (Barker, 1993). The use of focus questions can also eliminate the possibility of the user do get lost in hyperspace (Romiszowski, 1990). If the user has a specified piece of information to look for or a certain task to complete, then it is more likely that he will not be wandering in hyperspace.
The degree of interactivity in a program will depend on the tasks that the users will have to carry out and the number of options that will be provided to them (Jones, Farquhar, & Surry, 1995). The interactivity of the program will be illustrated in the flowchart and the user interface. The flowcharting and storyboarding will derive from the information mapping and the content analysis from Phase 1. The building of the navigation structure and the design of the user interface (which is the following step) will many times overlap and can be a circular process. While designing the navigation and the structure of the information, hypermedia developers should always have in mind the interface and begin making decisions about the arrangement of the information and navigation options on the computer display.
Some additional guidelines for the design of hypermedia systems are the following:
The use of metaphors in designing the interface in hypermedia systems can increase transferability of knowledge (Barker, 1993; Jones, Farquhar, & Surry, 1995). The idea of transferability is defined by Barker (1993) as the ability of the learner "to carry across knowledge and skills relevant to one (well-known or familiar) domain and use them in another less familiar area" (p. 106). Four types of metaphors proposed by Barker (1993) were the book metaphor, the guide, the museum, and the story metaphor. For example, in the book metaphor different chapters can be used to represent different topics, whereas the table of contents can serve as the main menu.
Some additional guidelines for the interface design are the following:
Formative Evaluation
Dick and Carey (1991) argued that one of evaluation's major aims is to collect data that would guide the decision making process. Formative evaluation takes place during the instructional development process and it is constantly providing feedback about the project. The hypermedia system should constantly be tested and revised in order to maintain the alignment between the three main phases of instructional development. The best way to test instructional materials is to have the learners try them during the development process and get feedback from them. Also, before the final production, the prototype should be reviewed by experts in the subject, in instructional design, and interface design. Instructional designers, multimedia developers, graphic artists, and content experts should evaluate the prototype and provide feedback for the producer.
PHASE III
The final product is developed and the hypermedia system is actually implemented as a part of the on-line course. By this time, the other components of the on-line course should also be ready for implementation. At the end, summative evaluation will take place. Summative evaluation refers to the evaluation conducted to determine whether an already developed and applied program meets its goals successfully. Summative evaluation will provide evidence about the overall effect of an instructional system. The results will be analyzed to determine the overall effectiveness of the system, and whether it should be continued. Evidence that results from this phase can be used to determine whether the hypermedia system was effective in delivering instruction.
Conclusion [TOP]
Hypermedia systems can be valuable educational tools because they provide easy and non-linear access to large amounts of information, allow greater learner control, parallel the human memory, and can present information in more than one mode. The systematic process described in this paper approaches educational hypermedia development as a system of interrelated events. The important stages during this process are the structuring of the information, the design of the navigation, and the design of the user interface.
The Internet and the World Wide Web provide unlimited resources for educators and learners and it is shaping in new waysil at pambos@asu.edu