Overview

Maximizing the Potential of Web-based Instruction:

An Examination of Web Instructional Design in

Light of Traditional Instructional Models and Theories

Abstract

Web-based instruction proves to be a contributive tool when measured traditional instructional models. This paper discusses the practical and theoretical implications of Web-based instruction when it’s features are delineated against recognized modes of instruction. With Web instruction, in its adolescent stage, empirical findings are sparse, yet Web pages of instructional content are becoming a prevalent force in education. Considering standards in an effort to develop and maintain pedagogically, sound Web instruction is paramount to developing a viable transition from conventional classroom instruction. This paper investigates delivery methods and technologies in light of various models and theories of instructional design.

Maximizing the Potential of Web-based Instruction

Introduction

While technologies continue to evolve and society continues to change, learning methods are becoming more flexible and portable. Distance education provides more freedom for learners, and creates more choices than ever. Technology makes it possible to deliver educational experiences remotely. Education is shifting from a teacher-centered system to a learner-centered system. As learner needs change, educators must be flexible and assume different roles. With these trends comes the need to focus on the learner when designing distance education programs, (Bridwell ET al., 1997).

According to Reiber (1990), research has not been able to detect a significant difference, when comparing traditional classroom instruction and computer-based instruction, other than economic for large populations or instruction to remote areas. These two reasons however have caused a surge of technology-related education. Presently, the technology for multimedia education is developing at a faster pace than a corresponding science of how people learn in multimedia environments (Mayer, 1997).

Web-based Instruction and Distance Education

Education must face an additional component to the multimedia surge known as Web-based Instruction. This paper discusses the practical and theoretical implications of Web-based instructional design. With Web instruction, yet in its infancy, empirical findings are sparse, yet instructional Web pages are becoming a prevalent force in education. Discussing standards in an effort to develop and maintain pedagogically sound Web instruction is paramount to developing a viable transition from traditional classroom instruction. This opens an academic platform of discussion on essential elements of Web-based instruction and how such methods of delivery are viewed in light of basic instructional design principles.

Web-based instruction offers education that is cost-effective, remotely accessible, and asynchronous. Desmond Keegan’s (1990) definition of distance education consists of five concepts:

Geographic separation of the learner and the instructor.
The "influence" of an educational organization.
The use of technology for communication.
The "provision" for bi-directional communication.
The absence or "quasi permanent absence" of a peer group.

The field of instructional design (ID) is in a state of rapid change, (In Wilson, 1997, citing Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy, & Perry, 1991; Duffy & Jonassen, 1992). With the evolution of the distance learning environment, heated discussions are ensuing concerning the fundamental models of instructional design, and how these models hold up to the realm of multimedia and remote learning. According to Saba, (1996), In a technology-based environment, education will tend to be more learner-centered, than teacher-centered; case-based, than content-based; contextualized, than abstract; and democratic, than elitist.

Web-based Instruction Issues

In the past ten years, there has been a dramatic increase in the number of host computers on the Internet. The Net is growing at a rate of 10 to 15 percent a month. Pfaffenberger (1994) estimated that 2 million host computers served 20 million users worldwide, and by 1998 there would be 100 million people who would have access to the Internet. In the last three years, an increasing number of host computers are dedicated to the World Wide Web (WWW). When studying distance education, the research is not only investigating the content but constantly adapting to the tools available in the search.

Existing Research

Instructional Design Theories

Instructional design theories are typically seen as prescriptive in the sense that

--They provide recipes or heuristics for doing designs, and

--They also specify how end-product instruction should look.

Instructional design theories serve as guides. They are about how to get something done, how to design a solution, not about how the world is. In that sense, they are really less theories and more models for action and for problem solving.

Several forms of knowledge may contribute to an ID model, including:

--Scientific knowledge of learning and related sciences;

--Craft knowledge of effective design, based more on teaching practices than on formal scientific research;

--Idiosyncratic knowledge about instruction unique to the ID profession, untested by formal research yet functionally important to ID practice, (Wilson, 1997).

Instructional Design Models

Currently, there are no widely recognized models of web-based design. Existing models of instructional design for both traditional instruction and for software instruction contain elements that are suited to instructional design regardless the medium. We can draw from existing models of instructional design when designing web-based instruction.

Instructional models serve as guidelines but often require modifications based on other parameters such as medium, time constraints, learner profiles, and even funding. Designing instruction requires investigations and heuristics of learner issues, instructor issues, as well as resource issues.

Considerations in Web-Based Instruction

The Web is delivery medium, content provider, and subject matter all in one, (McManus, 1998).

Technology offers many options for delivering and receiving education at a distance. However,

"There is a logical process to follow when designing distance education. This process is based on instructional design models, which focus on decisions about learners, learner objectives, content, methodology, and delivery.

Although this particular approach identifies steps in a specific order, the process is not totally linear. For example, the instructional designer may be presented with a need and must set goals and define the learner, based on the expressed need.

However, it is not appropriate to define the instructional methodology or delivery method before addressing learner issues," (Bridwell ET al., 1997).

Research in effectiveness is limited for K-12 applications, but existing research, project evaluation, and anecdotal evidence strongly suggest that distance education is an effective means for delivering instruction just as it has been proven effective in adult learning and training settings.

Purpose

This paper does not purport evidence to the validity of Web-based instruction over traditional instruction, nor does it refute the claims of "traditional" education. Incorporating Web Instruction as an additional teaching medium may be measured as a tool against conventional educational practices. We must begin a discussion on the significance and potential of Web-based instruction. This paper contends that technology is a primary tool in the educational building process and that the Internet will become its foundation. Owston (1997) concluded that the Internet, as an Instructional Delivery System, increases access to education, promotes improved learning outcomes, and contains the costs of education.

This investigation will examine the following research questions:

What elements are needed to create instructionally sound Web pages?
What pedagogically sound principles can be identified that can enhance Web-based instruction?

There are many instructional models on which we can weigh the attributes of Web Instruction, however this article will explore the potential of Web-based instruction in light of some of the more widely known models and theories of instructional design.

Review of Literature

Elements of Instructional Design

Theories of Instruction and Instructional Design

Instructional theories "provide the bases for general strategies for improving the likelihood of learning by arranging instructional experiences directly suited to the learner’s ability to learn," (Wagner, 1994). Each instructional theory prescribes interventions to improve learning and performance. They often share similar concepts, sometimes referring to similar ideas with different names. Among the better known theories are Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory of Instruction (Reigeluth and Stein, 1983), Merrill’s Component Display Theory (1983), and Keller’s ARCS (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction) Theory (1983), (as cited in Gazda, 1998) and Constructivist Theory of Instruction.

Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory.

Reigeluth’s Theory is largely based on the elaboration theory of memory, with its emphasis on providing a structure for the presentation of information that facilitates the encoding and retrieval of that information in application contexts. The emphasis is on a "big picture" framework for enhancing the meaningfulness of the information.

Merrill’s Component Display Theory.

The Component Display Theory is largely based on issues of practice and on the provision of feedback opportunities. "...The learner experience may include many examples and nonexamples of the concepts, which can be effectively presented using the video medium." (Savenye, 1990) "This theory also encourages informational and corrective confirmational feedback, as well as opportunities for rehearsal and practice; it is intended to enhance the meaningfulness of information by emphasizing elaborative and multiple presentation forms." (Wagner, 1994)

Keller’s ARCS Theory.

"Keller’s ARCS Theory looks beyond the specific concerns of knowledge and skills acquisition toward a systematic framework for incorporating motivational strategies in instruction."(Wagner, 1994) Expanding the letters of the ARCS acronym, the learner’s performance is enhanced with instructional designs that are constructed to capture Attention, emphasize Relevance of the information, build Confidence with the information, and promote Satisfaction with performance (Keller, 1983).

Constructivism.

Although Constructivist theory has caused some to question the claims and precedence set by Gagne, many instructional theorists and practitioners see value in both Gagne’s Instructional Design and Constructivism. However, with Constructivism in its infancy, empirical evidence is insufficient. Driscoll (1994) reflects this in the following summary:

"As a theory, it (constructivism) may indeed be incommensurable with an instructional theory such as Gagne’s, because the two would have been built from opposing assumptions. But as a philosophy, constructivism may be viewed as not competing with other instructional theories, but providing them with an alternative set of values . . . " (p. 376)

Constructivist learning theory looks to provide complex, rich learning environments, social negotiation, and learner-centered instruction. Constructivist goals include reasoning, critical thinking, and cognitive flexibility.

Models of Instruction and Instructional Design

Most instructional design models rely on a set of steps to produce an effective result (Hannafin & Peck, 1988). Their features generally include stages for planning, development, and testing.

Models of Instruction and Instructional Design

Gagne’s Events of Instruction.

Gagne's instructional model is widely used in the design of instruction in many settings, and its continuing influence in the field of education can be seen in the more than 130 times that Gagne has been cited in prominent journals in the field from 1985 through 1990 (Anglin & Towers, 1992).

Gagne believes learning is cumulative. Skills build on other skills to achieve higher levels of learning, and this is developed by teachers and instructional designers through planned or directed learning. Gagne does not believe that learning is maturational, or dependent on age. Directed learning assumes that learning is sequential, universal, determinable, countable, and objectively defined, hence the Nine Events of Instruction were developed (P540 Gagne Group, 1996). Gagne and Leslie Briggs developed a theory of instruction that outlined nine events of instruction.

They are, see Table 1:

1. gaining attention

2. informing learner of the objective

3. stimulating recall of prerequisites

4. presenting the stimulus material

5. providing learning guidance

6. eliciting the performance

7. providing feedback

8. assessing the performance

9. enhancing retention and transfer

Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction are ordinal in nature; however, it is recognized that every step is not mandatory.

Here are short summaries of some of the other instructional models summarized by Tom Welter, (1998).

Dick and Carey Model.

The Dick and Carey Design Model uses a systems approach for designing instruction. One of the best known models, its approach to designing instruction is similar to that of software engineering. The design model describes all the phases of an iterative process that starts by identifying instructional goals and ends with summative evaluation. This model is applicable across a range of context areas (e.g., K-12 to business to government) and users (novice to expert).

Hannafin & Peck Model.

The Hannafin & Peck Design Model is a three phase process. In the first phase, a needs assessment is performed. This phase is followed by a design phase. In the third phase, instruction is developed and implemented. In this model, all of the phases involve a process of evaluation and revision.

Knirk & Gustafson Model.

The Knirk & Gustafson Design Model is a three stage process which includes problem determination, design and development. The problem determination stage involves identifying the problem and setting instructional goals. The design stage includes developing objectives and specifying strategies. Finally, in the development stage, materials are developed.

Rapid Prototyping Design Model.

Tripp and Bichelmeyer's Rapid Prototyping Design Model is a four level process that is intended to create instruction for lessons as opposed to entire curricula. The process stages include performing a needs analysis, constructing a prototype, utilizing the prototype to perform research and installing the final system. This model relies on expert instructional designers to utilize heuristics as well as their past experience and intuition to guide the design.

Instructional Web Page Research

"The Web uses text, graphics, interactivity, and to a lesser extent video and audio. According to Reiser and Gagne's media selection diagram (Reiser and Gagne, 1983) and Merrill and Goodman's strategy and media selection technique (Merrill and Goodman, 1972) these characteristics make the Web most useful when used to explore intellectual and verbal knowledge, and to a lesser extent when exploring affective learning. With it's versatility and interconnectedness the Web offers one of the most effective ways to work with learners who are wide spread geographically. And the ease of use of HTML makes Web Based Instruction (WBI) easy to update to meet the needs of changing subject matter," (McManus, 1997).

The look of web pages has changed over the last five years and is still evolving. Web instruction, inherently, has many variables. Hardware availability, bandwidth speeds and traffic, and user profiles are a few of the primary issues. Add to this the evolving nature of technology, and setting standards becomes difficult at best. Here, we will consider the design and content of a web page for instructional purposes. Such constructs address learner-interface issues.

Learner-interface.

Learner-content and learner-interface issues need to be investigated side by side, perhaps even as dependent variable. To study learner-content without a learner-interface component would be remiss. It seems Moore intended for learner-content to encompass learner-interface to some extent while also including the internalization of content for the learner, (Moore, 1989). Just as it is impossible to separate the TV from the show, or the difference between the noun and the verb, treating learner-interface as a separate study element from learner-content is misleading. Learner-interface connects most closely with process. Shakespeare's Romeo & Juliet projects very differently between text, play and movie screen. I contend that Hillman et al., (1994) are short of the point in their claim that learner-interface is a fourth category equal to the other interactions. It certainly is a valid field of research but cannot be treated justifiably outside the learner-content domain.

Content.

Jakob Nielsen is the forerunner of web design research. Nielsen’s longitudinal studies present findings that illustrate the unique issues of web-based design. According to Nielsen, (1997), users don’t read on the web, they scan or skim the text. Texts should be brief and designers should make use of the hypertext structure of the web. Highlight keywords and link to definitions if appropriate. Make the information meaningful rather than clever. Use one idea per paragraph. Use half the word count of conventional writing.

The inverted pyramid is the style of instruction most suited to web learners. Put the most general instruction first and details deeper into the web pages, (Nielsen, 1997 and Instone, 1997).

Navigation.

Web instructional planning is more than design and content considerations. Web links can be to email addresses, newsgroups, and listservs for communication, ftp sites for downloading of information, video clips or animations for visual instruction or other web pages.

Web navigation should follow platform conventions, (Instone, 1998). Also, making sure heading on links are consistent with heading on the pages to which they lead provides stability in navigation. Navigation, in most cases, should also utilize the web’s potential providing an appropriate number of choices from which the user can spring, while at the same time, providing parameters and goals for intended instructional outcomes.

Design.

Screen consistency and interest are of primary importance. "Make rarely needed information accessible via a link so that the details are there when needed but do not interfere with the relevant content," (Instone, 1997).

Nielsen has found, (December 1997) animations are usually annoying and wild backgrounds disrupt users’reading. Don’t fight the conventions of the web, blue is the default color of links so watch how else it is used.

Chapter III: Method

Design of study

Based on the need for technology training for educators, this proposed research is designed to study the views of effective Web-based instruction of instructional designers, distance education instructors and distance education students. After ascertaining the validity of the questionnaire (testing instrument), data will be collected. Background information on the participants will include and be categorized by role (designer, instructor, or student) and related work experience (for designers and instructors). Data will be collected on the participants’

Satisfaction regarding on-line activities and information.
Web-page design elements.
Use and preference between instructional paradigms.

The research design will employ both qualitative and quantitative methods. Triangulation will be established through the data collection techniques listed below:

1. Open-ended questionnaires
2. Likert scale surveys
3. Text message analysis
4. Interviews about design issues and good design elements

Data from the surveys will be analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), to assess participants’ views of Web page design and layout elements. Information obtained via on-line messages, open-ended questionnaires and interviews will be categorized, and then analyzed.

Description of participants

Three groups of participants will be solicited. Instructional designers, distance education instructors and distance education students from Arizona State University. Background information will be collected on each group based on role, experience, and motivation.

Description of measures

The survey will be given via the World Wide Web. Participants will record their responses to each item on a seven point scale, ranging from 1 = Agree Almost Completely with the statement to 7 = Disagree Almost Completely with the statement. Scores derived from this scale reflect where an individual's beliefs fall along a continuum of essential Web-based elements to non-essential.

Open-ended questionnaires.

Open-ended questionnaires will occur at the end of the investigation. Participants will complete on-line feedback forms specific to their perceptions of the effectiveness of the on-line activity. These evaluations will allow the investigator to assess learner perceptions, and determine needed instructional design changes. An added component to these feedback forms include questions concerning subject preference for the activity.

Questions will include:

What I liked the best about this Web page:
What I learned from this Web page:
What I didn't understand was:
How this activity could be improved would be:
On a scale from 1(best) to 5(worst), I liked this activity:

Interviews and text messages.

Interviews will be conducted specific to each educator's view of knowledge acquisition, as well as their feelings regarding each on-line activity. Interviews will take place via telephone or in person and focus on each educator's views on instruction, on-line activities, learner preferences and personal teaching styles.

Procedures

Data will be collected from instructional designers working on instructional design projects.

Questionnaire validation.

Design questionnaire: The first stage is to question the experts. I will develop a questionnaire that will cover design aspects and then collect information on how the designers plan for Web-based instruction.
Validate questionnaire (through experts): Experts in the field of instructional design will then validate the questionnaire.
Refine instrument: The questionnaire will be refined based on the suggestions from the experts. The revised instrument will be used for data collection.

Data Collection.

Information will be collected from the various developers via e-mail or phone. Participants will be selected based on their experience in the field of instructional design for Web-based instruction, student status, or instructor status. Data will be categorized based on participant role and, in the cases of designer and instructor, on experience. Information about these participants will be collected via the World Wide Web. Contact with all participants will also be made through the media mentioned here. All messages will be collected for the analysis stage.

Content Analysis.

Categorize responses: Once the completed questionnaire has been received from the various participants, it will be analyzed using a qualitative methodology. Responses will be categorized and then coded to identify the various categories of responses.

Identify design features: These categories will then be carefully analyzed to determine the various design features that are crucial for Web-based instruction.

Chapter IV: Discussion & Recommendations

Discussion

The Web instruction considered here is more than the Web page lesson put into place by a single instructor whose limited adaptation of existing curriculum into Web format falls dramatically in lieu of the Web's potential. Let us learn a lesson from the history of technology in education over the last seventy years.

Since 1920 many technologies have been introduced to the classroom aimed at making teaching and learning more productive. Film, radio, and instructional television are examples of media embraced by reformers with high expectations. However, an exhaustive research effort in media-comparison studies did not confirm the expected gains in learning (Hannafin & Savenye, 1993).

Hannafin and Savenye (1993) believed that resistance is sometimes attributed to the instability of change itself, and even credited the Kozma and Clark debate for some of that resistance. However, the magnitude and inevitability of the virtual environment including it’s instructional component warrants serious consideration towards adaptation.

Teaching: Craft vs. Total Systems Perspective

Moore (1993) suggests that we should learn from the evolution of the airline industry when incorporating technology into the educational process. When development occurs in accordance with known models of instruction, we run the risk of narrow applications based on existing understandings. The success of Web instruction depends greatly on a view of education that is different than the conventional classroom.

Moore (1993) points out that the first movie makers placed cameras in the pit of a theater and filmed stage plays, until they perceived that they were allowing the structures of the older art form to limit their use of the new technology. The new technology required that they invent new ways of organizing their work, which led to the development of a new art form and a new industry.

Recommendations

The integration of Web technology in the curriculum can enhance the goals of education supporting individualized pacing, student accountability, and precise monitoring of student progress. Web instruction, in playing a role in the delivery of instruction, endorses unlimited practice, with the option for recording diagnostic results. Assessment can promptly be monitored and recorded for students, parents, and teachers via Intranet technology.

With research sorely lacking in the field, evidence is sparse at best. And unlike any other medium, the rapidly changing nature of technology makes "keeping up" more difficult than ever before. If technology is a component, then learning is a perpetual evolution. We are progressing toward an on-line Integrated Learning System (ILS), supporting learning that is time-independent and accessible in many remote locations. Using sound instructional design principles aid in implementing "appropriate" and "effective" learning environments. Learning to learn quickly is more readily available if appropriate design models such are entrenched into the strategy.

Table 1.

Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction Associated with the Internal Learning Processes They Support with Traditional and Web-Instruction Examples.

EVENT OF INSTRUCTION LEARNING PROCESSES TRADITIONAL CLASSROOM EXAMPLES WEB-INSTRUCTION EXAMPLES

1. gaining attention attention teacher flips light on & off to gain attention opening animation

2. informing learner of the objective expectancy teacher tells students what they will study listing with pop-up windows of practical applications

3. stimulating recall of prerequisites retrieval to working memory reviews yesterday's work pretest providing immediate diagnosis

4. presenting the stimulus material pattern recognition; selective perception books, and/or film in order to meet desired outcome video, hot-linked text, animations

5. providing learning guidance chunking, rehearsal, encoding show an example of a problem simulations, online tutorials

6. eliciting the performance retrieval, responding ask students to solve 10 questions shocked, cgi-based or java based tests

7. providing feedback reinforcement, error correction reinforcement & error correction of material learned cgi/perl diagnosing provides immediate feedback

8. assessing the performance responding, retention does student perform new skill, tests, portfolio, skill demonstrations online exercises, simulations, note: record-keeping steps are reduced with technology providing immediate results.

9. enhancing retention and transfer retention, retrieval, generalization able to generalize and transfer skills to new problems or situations additional simulations applying declarative and procedural knowledge

Note. Columns 1-3 are reproduced from P540 Gagne Group (1996) Gagne’s theories of instruction. [WWW document]. URL http://education.indiana.edu/~cep/courses/p540/overview.htm

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